LAD #7 Washington's Farewell Address

Summary of Washington's Farewell Address, 1796:

Washington proclaims that he is taking himself out of the running for the next Presidency, but that he wishes that the public elect another capable man for the job. He had been considering retiring early, but the instability of foreign affairs and the advice of his advisors held him in his post until the next election. He also looks eagerly forward to retirement, but he is deeply grateful of the country that has conferred so many honors upon him. He presents some parting advice to the nation:

• The unified government is crucial to and responsible for the people's protection, liberty, and prosperity, and Washington warns the public to remember this when the public is encountered with attempts to separate or degrade the government.
• When unified, different portions of the country work together and achieve greater growth and success. Example: combination of North seafaring and Southern agriculture generate prosperous trade and maritime strength.
• Also, the Union prevents wars between neighboring states like small neighboring countries have, and wars are embittering and dangerous to republican liberty.
• Obstructions to the laws are dangerous and factious, and he warns to beware of attempts by a minority to take control of the government or to undermine and reduce the importance of laws that cannot be overthrown.
• He warns of the dangers of competing parties, which could lead to oppression of one group by another.
• Religion and morality are necessary guidelines for the continuation of political prosperity.
• Public opinion and credit is a source of strength that should be used sparingly.
• Cultivate peace and harmony with all foreign powers, but alliances with particular foreign powers are discouraged.

Republican Motherhood

• What role did the Revolutionary War play in the transformation of housewifery to Republican Motherhood?

The Revolutionary War inspired heightened enthusiam for ideals like independence, patriotism, and republicanism. It became a common belief following the Revolution that such ideals needed to be instilled into the minds of generations of Americans to come, and it became the hallowed service of the mother to instill such virtues in their sons (Document A).

• What were the consequences of Republican Motherhood on women?

It was commonly agreed at the time that it was a mother's job to instill republican ideals in their sons. To quote Jonathan F. Stearns in Document D, "On you, ladies, depends, in a most important degree, the destiny of our country." There were several opinions as to how women could best accomplish this task. For example, in Document A, Mrs. A.J. Graves writes of how women should restrict their lives to the household, and that women have no influential place in society outside of their "appropriate domain". Benjamin Rush, in Document B, stated that in order to accomplish their duties they needed a certain amount of education, and thus proposed educating young women.

• What is the significance of the ideology of Republican Motherhood as a stage in the process of woman's socialization?

The role of women in Republican Motherhood gave them an individual and cherished role in society. It changed the mindset of women, and led them to believe that the "...reformation of the world is in [their] power." (Document C). Their growing role in the functioning of America led to increased pride and self-assertion. Mary Morris writes in Document C that "...Already may we see the lovely daughters of Columbia asserting the importance and the honor of their sex."

• Describe the setting:

A young and rather attractive-looking woman is portrayed on a pink sofa, and she is surrounded by her two young sons, who are interestingly dressed up in female dresses.

• Who serves at the center of the portrait and why? How does the woman look? How is she "republican" rather than aristocratic?

The woman is at the center of the portrait, which portrays her as the central and dominant figure. The woman appears young and attractive, but she differs from Old-World aristocratic excessiveness in that her dress and hair are plain and muted.

• What values do her sons exhibit?

Her sons portray the growing importance of women in society and family life, most likely a symbolic portrayal of the influence of Republican Motherhood.

• Is there a significance to the position of Mrs. Tilgham's arm?

The position of Mrs. Tilghman's arm could suggest the restraint and influence that she exerts over her children. She holds it over her younger son's lap, perhaps to protect him if he falls and to direct him and influence his actions/

LAD #6 Washington's Proclamation of Neutrality

Summary of Washington's Proclamation of Neutrality:

Washington proclaims that the United States should pursue an impartial foreign policy and maintain friendly relations with foreign powers despite any conflicts between them. Furthermore, he proclaims that the United States will not attempt to protect any citizens who have committed a crime against foreign powers, and that those citizens will also be prosecuted by the United States.

LAD #5 Federalist #10

• Why are factions so difficult to eliminate?

Factions are essentially impossible to eliminate for two reasons- firstly, it would (theoretically) be possible to eliminate them by eliminating liberty. However, that would be choosing the greater of two evils, for factitious arguments are far preferable to a totalitarian state. Secondly, the other method of eliminating factions would be to give every citizen the same opinions and interests, which is an impossibility due to human nature.

• If factions cannot be removed then how can they be controlled?

Factions only need to be controlled if they constitute a majority. Thankfully, a minority faction will never gain power under the Constitution, although it may still be a bother in society. However, a majority faction, which can gain power under the Constitution, can be controlled if the factious beliefs are not present at the same time or are not conspiring at the same time. The election process of the Constitution in a republic the size of America is an effective check against such a majority faction.

LAD #4 Revolution Article

Five Things I Learned from the Revolutionary War Article:

1. I found it interesting that certain Founding Fathers and some elite upper class chose to propagate specific images of the American War that would define history in a way most suiting for their needs. 
2. I had never previously considered how great an emphasis was placed on the political events and people in the revolution, as opposed to the actual battles and fighting. The fact becomes very unique when compared to other American wars since, with a much greater emphasis placed on the battles.
3. The beliefs that the American Revolution was less violent than other, more recent American wars is partially due to the non-violent and sterile portrayals of the Revolution in art and the lack of moving statements from Washington and Thomas Paine, among other prominent figures, in regards to the brutal fighting.
4. The American Revolution was actually far more savage than it is generally given credit for, even compared to the enormous death toll of the Civil War. For example, a much greater percentage of POWs perished in POW camps in the REvolution than even in the horrendous camps of the Civil War, and about half of the Continental Army was completely naked and two-thirds lacking in food at times. 
5. Civilians suffered enormously in the American Revolution, and were subjected to diseases, had their towns burned, and were massacred in their homes. Loyalists were persecuted like no other civilian group in the Civil War- ten times more Loyalists were exiled than Confederates, despite a much smaller overall population.

LAD #3 Declaration of Independence

• Summary of Democratic Principles- The Declaration of Independence mentions in its opening several basic democratic principles. Firstly, it states that all men are created equal, and that every person has certain basic rights that cannot be taken away. Secondly, it claims that governments derive their power from the consent of the governed in order to secure peoples' basic rights. The Declaration also mentions that the people have a right to cast off a destructive old government and create a new government based on the principles of the people, in order to guard the peoples' safety and happiness. These democratic principles were mainly based on the beliefs of the philosopher John Locke in his Second Treatise of Government, and the democratic arguments included were used primarily to justify the rebellion of the American people against the British government. 

• Several Grievances of the British Crown- The King refused to pass and denied the rights to institute colonial laws, he dissolved representative governing assemblies and forced compliance to his legislative measures, he indirectly blocked the administration of justice and influenced judges of law, he maintained armies in the colonies in peacetime and allowed them lodging in private homes, he cut off foreign trade, he taxed the colonies without their consent,  he deprived colonists of trial by jury, he hired foreign armies to fight the colonists, he impressed colonists into British service, and he only responded to colonial petitions against such infractions with further grievances.

• Summary of the Conclusion- The American people have time and again pleaded and warned the British people not to continue supporting the issuing of unwarranted jurisdiction over the colonies, else it would damage the good connections and correspondence with Britain. However, since they have failed to comply with us, the Americans will turn and fight them in times of war. Furthermore, the representatives of the United States of America, with God's help, declare that the United Colonies are and deserve to be free and independent states, without any political ties to Britain. 

LAD #2 John Peter Zenger

• Who was John Peter Zenger?

John Peter Zenger was the publisher of the unauthorized "New-York Weekly JOURNAL", which published propaganda against the corrupt and despicable New York governor William Cosby. Zenger was jailed by the Governor on charges of publishing seditious libel. At his trial, the prestigious lawyer Alexander Hamilton defended Zenger, and Zenger was famously acquitted despite a corrupt judge.

• What was the controversy over his charges? Talk about Hamilton's defense.

There was some controversy over the charges placed on Zenger. He was accused of publishing seditious libel, or malicious untruths inspiring rebellion, against Governor Cosby. It is important to note that, while the facts Zenger published were indeed malicious and intending to vilify the Governor, they were also true. Regardless, in Zenger's trial, the prosecuting Attorney General Bradley argued that, whether the published facts were true or not, the act of printing them at all was enough to prosecute Zenger. Such an argument was actually supported by the British (and thus colonial) law at the time. However, Hamilton argued that the libel law of Britain should not be applicable in the colonies. When the corrupt Chief Justice Delancey stated that no laws supported Hamilton's argument and that the jury should leave the case to the corrupt judges to decide, Hamilton eloquently explained the key point of his defense, which was that the jury was able to decide the ruling of the case for itself without the decision of the judges. This is known as jury nullification. So regardless of the existing law that would have condemned Zenger, the jury could decide whether Zenger was guilty or not.

• What influence did his case have on American governmental tradition?

The Zenger case proved that the truth is an absolute defense against libel. Thus, the precedent that a statement is not libel if it can be proved to be true was set. This established the American policy of Freedom of the Press. Also, it set a precedent of a jury's right to nullify the judges decision.

• What is the lasting significance of his trial? Explain.

The trial had lasting significance. Even though no new laws relating to seditious libel were  created directly after the trial, the outcome of the case greatly impacted the colonies. For example, the case demonstrated the intense public resentment towards libel prosecutions. Similar prosecutions were discouraged by the new precedent of jury nullification. Lastly, freedom of the press started growing, and would be codified about a half-century later in the first amendment of the Bill of Rights. In the words of Gouvernor Morris, a drafter of the Constitution and the great-grandson of Lewis Morris, a man who worked with Zenger in the creation of the New-York Weekly JOURNAL, "The trial of Zenger in 1735 was the germ of American Freedom...which subsequently revolutionized America."

LAD #1 Mayflower Compact & Fundamental Orders of Connecticut:

• What concepts are included in the Mayflower Compact?

The most prominent concept in the Mayflower Compact is that of a government based on the consent of the governed. First outlined by John Locke in his Second Treatise of Government, the early application of this theory in the Mayflower Compact was a surprising and symbolic step forward. The ideal of consent by the governed forms the basis of democracy, and it was an especially surprising decision considering how the men aboard the Mayflower had lived their whole lives under a monarchial government. Other prominent concepts in the Compact include the settlers' deep faith in God and in God's guidance; the settlers' resounding loyalty to the English King, despite his persecution of the settlers'; and the settlers' beliefs in mutual equality under God and under the law.

• How does the Mayflower Compact reflect and attachment to both the "Old" and "New" worlds?

The Mayflower Compact reflects the settlers' deep attachments to the Old World in their continuing loyalty to the English King and in their steadfast religious beliefs. However, it also reflects their hopes and ideals for the New World in their beliefs in the equality of citizens and their formation of a government derived from the consent of the people. According to the Mayflower Compact, in looking towards the new world, the settlers were willing to discard the distinct social classes and overwhelming government of the Old World.

• How did the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut differ from the Mayflower Compact?

The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut differed from the Mayflower Compact in its design and intent. The Mayflower Compact was simply an agreement among the Mayflower's small group of settlers to cooperate in and help construct a fair government. The Mayflower Compact never specifically detailed how such a government would be run. The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut were the "next step" in the process- The Fundamental Orders specifically stated what positions would have power in government, and how people would be elected to such positions. It also laid out what powers those government positions would have.

• What prompted the colonists of Connecticut to take this approach to government, i.e.: use of a written Constitution?

The colonists of the Connecticut River Towns chose to create the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, perhaps the first written Constitution, that clearly spelled out the system of government and assured individual rights. This was a response of the Puritans and Congregationalists of the Connecticut River towns to the rapidly increasing Anglican reforms in Massachusetts. The Puritans and Congregationalists, fearing persecution and a loss of their rights as more Anglicans immigrated to Massachusetts, wished for an ecclesiastical society of their own. About four years after the creation of the Connecticut River towns, Roger Ludlow proposed and drafted the Fundamental Orders to safeguard the establishment and the individual rights of its inhabitants, and also to make Connecticut a self-ruled entity.

• In what significant way(s) does the Fundamental Orders reflect a fear of and safeguard against the usurping of power by one person or a chosen few?

The Fundamental Orders attempt to prevent against the usurpation of power by limiting the influence one man or a small group of men could have in government. The Orders extend voting rights to a greater percentage of the male population, which results in a wider array of diverse candidates for office. They also limit the amount of time that one man could hold office- for example, one man is not allowed to hold the Governor's office for more than two consecutive years. It also creates an early system of checks against an illegal election and disorderly conduct of people holding offices, with the power to fine poor behavior and to re-do foul elections.

9/6/11

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